《中國人的性格》是美國傳教士阿瑟·史密斯（明恩溥）基于1872年赴華傳教期間的社會觀察撰寫的著作，首版英文名《Chinese Characteristics》于19世紀末問世，。作者在華生活逾五十年，書中融合人類學視角與傳教士立場，記錄了晚清民眾的性格特征與文化形態。

全書以27個主題章節剖析中國人行為模式，包含“保全面子”“省吃儉用”等生活哲學，以及“漠視精確”“因循守舊”等社會現象。通過對比西方工業文明，著重探討東方特有的生存韌性，如環境適應力與疼痛耐受性。書中案例多源自山東鄉村生活經歷，涉及衣食住行、孝悌觀念等主題，部分結論因宗教立場存在視角爭議。該著作開創西方研究中國國民性先河，被譯成多國文字，成為近代中西文化互鑒的重要文本。

第十九章 孝悌為先

討論中國人的性格，不能不談談孝順。這可不是個容易對付的課題?！靶㈨槨迸c我們不得不采用的許多其他概念一樣，難以用英語詞語將它準確地翻譯過來。其意義也和我們所理解的大相徑庭。漢語中還有不少包含這一意義的概念，其中與“孝順”聯系最緊密，也最常用的一個是“禮”。為了對此加以說明，并為討論中國人的“孝順”性格提供一個背景知識，最好先引用卡萊爾先生的一段話（引自《中央王國》）：“禮是中國人所有思想觀念的集中體現；在我看來，中國可以貢獻給世界的最合適、最完美的專著就是《禮記》。中國人的感情靠禮來滿足；他們的職責靠禮來實現；他們的善惡靠禮來評判；人與人之間自然的關系靠禮來維系——總而言之，這是一個由禮來控制的民族，每個人都作為道德的、政治的和宗教的人而存在，受家庭，社會和宗教等等多重關系的制約?！睂@段話，威廉姆斯博士的評價最令人信服，他說：“將‘禮’譯為‘ceremony’很不準確，‘ceremony’的意義太過貧乏，而‘禮’不僅指人的外在品行，還包括支配所有真正的禮儀和禮貌的正確原則?！?/p>

翻閱一下“四書”和其他古代典籍，尤其是《孝經》，最容易讓人確信，中國人十分重視孝順。目前，我們只關注中國人現實生活中的孝順觀，看看他們是如何理解孝順的，孝順是如何成為中國人獨一無二的特性的。要切記，中國人的孝順是多側面的，并不是在所有的條件下或所有的觀察家都能發現其實質。

１８７７年，在上海召開的傳教士會議上，雅蒂斯博士宣讀了一篇論“祖先崇拜”的論文。在這篇精心寫作的論文中，他具體闡述了自己三十年來在中國的觀察與經驗。在論文的開頭，作者提出，祖先崇拜只是孝順的一種表現形式，接著又說，“孝”這一概念，容易產生誤導，我們應當警惕，以免誤人歧途。在我們了解的所有民族中，中國人是最不孝順的，不服從父母，他們一旦知道了自己所需要的需要，就開始固執己見?！痹谥袊盍巳甑?、著名的中國典籍翻譯家萊格博士，則斷然否定雅蒂斯博士的觀點。他宣稱，他在中國的生活經驗與此截然相反。這種相互矛盾的現象表明，人與人之間總存在著不同的觀點，就像兩支溫度計一樣。要想獲得正確、全面的觀念，就必須將這些互相沖突的觀點聯系起來，綜合考慮。

長期的經驗證明，中國的孩子，沒有接受過如何正確聽從父母的教育，我們把立即服從父母當成一條規則，他們對此卻一無所知。可是，這些不受約束或半受約束的孩子長大之后，情形就不再像我們所預料的那樣了。中國人認為，“樹大自然直”，這個比喻就是說，孩子長大之后，自然知道自己應該怎樣做，它也可能講的是其他意思，但它確實為孝順行為提供了理論依據。不過，這種現象似乎是由人們的孝順觀念、受教育的方式和各地孝順的典型共同促成的?！缎⒔洝分姓f：“五刑之屬三千，而罪莫大于不孝。”還有一種最普通的說法：“孝為萬德之首，其誠存于心，而不在行。以行而論，世無孝子。”中國人還特別指出，任何道德缺陷都可追溯到孝心。違背禮節是因為缺少孝心，不忠心耿耿是因為缺少孝心，不克盡厥職是因為缺少孝心，對朋友不忠誠是因為缺少孝心，臨陣膽怯是因為缺少孝心。這樣，孝順的內涵就遠遠超出了行為的范疇，不僅包含了行為的動機，還包含了所有的其他道德內容。

一般人認為，孝順實際上是出于感激?！缎⒔洝冯妨钫聦Υ俗髁藦娬{。據孔子說，父母死，要守孝三年，因為“子生三年，然后娩于父母之懷”。守孝三年似乎成了對父母這三年養育之恩的回報。就是小羊羔吃奶時，還知道要跪著呢（羔羊，獸也，跪哺乳）！孝順的人還要善待自己的身體，因為它是父母賜予的。不善待它，就等于忘恩負義。孝順的人，當父母在世時，要竭力服侍；去世后，要經常祭拜。孝順的人，要繼承父道，子曰：“三年無改于父之道，可謂孝矣?！备改该黠@有了錯誤，作子女的也可以努力促使他們糾正。威廉姆斯博士引用《禮記》中的一段話，可以為證：“父母有過，下氣怡然。柔聲以諫，諫若不入，起敬起孝，說則復諫。不說，與其得罪于鄉黨州閭，寧孰諫。父母怒，不說，而撻之流血，不敢疾怒，起敬起孝。”令人擔憂的是，在大多數西方國家，可以完全不聽父母的告誡，然而，就連在中國都很少聽到這樣的事。在《論語》第二章，我們發現，孔子對孝作出了幾種不同的解釋。在不同的情況下，他的解釋也不同。第一次是在魯國一位名叫孟懿的官員請教時，他只簡單地說了一句：“無違?！币馑己苋菀桌斫猓褪恰安贿`背”，那位官員自然也是這樣理解的，可是，孔子和他的同胞一樣，也具有“拐彎抹角的天賦”。他并不親自對孟懿作出解釋，而是直到后來，他的弟子樊遲駕車送他時，才又重提這件事。樊遲聽了，自然問他：“夫子，您是什么意思呢？”孔子就抓住這個機會，作出了如下解釋：“生，事之以禮，死，葬之以禮，祭之以禮?！焙翢o疑問?？鬃酉Ｍt能將這話轉述給孟懿，這樣，孟懿就會理解“無違”的真正含義了。還有一次是回答“孝”意味著什么?？鬃訌娬{對父母要事之以禮，否則，只照顧他們的身體，就無異于把他們當成馬、狗來看待了。引用上面那些，是想表明，中國人的孝順觀主要是應該依從父母的愿望，滿足他們的需求。在中國，這是個古老的觀念，孔子曾明確地說：“今之孝者，是謂能養。”這也說明他感到當時與古代已大不相同了，而他對古代則心往神馳，希望復古。夫子的這些言談已過去好多世紀了。可他的教誨已深深地滲入到中國人的骨髓中。如果今天他仍活著的話，我們深信，他會更堅定地說：“今之孝者，是謂能養！”我們現在已經了解了中國人是如何看待孝順與其他社會職責間的關系，可我們還不清楚中國人在現實中如何理解孝順。隨便挑十個未受過教育的中國人來問，怎樣才算是“孝順”？可能會有九個人回答：“不讓父母生氣?！备改干鷼馐且驗樽优疀]有好好地服侍。說得簡單些，還是應該“無違”，這是孔子的話，盡管他這樣說時，包含著“特殊的意義”。

如果讀者想知道有關的實例，就請看一看《二十四孝圖》，它講述的故事在中國可謂家喻戶曉。其中講到東漢的一位少年，六歲時隨父親去拜訪一位朋友。他發現，那人家里的桔子特別好吃，于是，就像一般的中國人一樣，偷偷地塞了兩個桔子在袖筒里。但在他告辭鞠躬時，桔子掉了下來，氣氛變得十分尷尬。可是，這位少年非常鎮靜，他馬上跪在主人面前，說了兩句令其名聲留傳千古的話：“家母喜歡吃桔子，我是拿給她的?！彼母赣H是當時的一位高官，在西方人看來，這孩子不可能沒其他機會為他的母親弄到桔子，但在中國人眼里，他卻成了典型的孝子，因為小小年紀就能夠為母親著想，不過，也或許是因為他反應敏捷，很快就能想出借口吧。晉代也有一位少年，因為父母沒有蚊帳，就想出了一個絕妙的權宜之計，每天早早地上床，整夜靜靜地躺著，一動不動，甚至連扇子也不搖一下，為的是讓家里的蚊子都來叮自己，好使父母能睡個安穩覺。與他同時代還有一個少年，在家里很不受繼母的喜歡，可他的繼母有個愛好，就是喜歡吃鯉魚，但在冬天又弄不到。于是，這少年就不加思索地脫去衣服，躺在冰上。冰下的一對鯉魚看到這情形，大受感動，就鉆了個冰窟隆，跳了上來，以供他那暴戾的繼母享用。

中國人認為，“偏袒妻兒”是一種不孝之舉。《孝經》敕令章中曾把它與賭博并列?！抖男D》中有一個典型的例子。一位漢朝人，家中很窮，沒有足夠的糧食來養活老母和一個年僅三歲的兒子。他就對妻子說：“我們太窮，甚至連母親都養不起。但孩子會爭母親的口糧。為什么不把孩子埋了呢？孩子埋了，咱們以后可以再生；母親死了，就不能再有了?！逼拮硬桓曳磳?，就挖了個兩尺多深的坑，可在坑底，他們挖出了一壇金子。壇子上刻著一些字，說這些金子是上天賜給這位孝子的。假如沒挖到金子，孩子可能就真被活埋了。按照一般人的孝順觀念，這人的行為可以理解，做法也正確、“偏袒妻兒”的感情不應阻止他活埋兒子以使其祖母活下去。

中國人還相信，父母的痼疾、只要吃了子女的肉，就有可能治愈。這些肉應該做好后、讓父母無意中吃下。即使不敢肯定會治愈，中國人認為總有可能。北京《邸報》上經常出現這類事例。筆者認識一個年輕人，為了給父母治病，就曾經從自己的腿上割下了一塊肉。對那塊傷疤，他一直十分自豪，就像個老兵一樣。毫無疑問，這類事情并不普遍，不過也許并不罕見。

中國人的孝順中，最重要的方面是孟子說的：“不孝有三，無后為大?！毙枰泻螅且驗樾枰死^承香火，祭把祖先。這已成了生活中最重要的內容。同樣因為這一點，中國的男孩子必須盡早成婚。三十六歲做祖父，在中國司空見慣。筆者的一位熟人，在彌留之際，曾責備自己有兩不孝：一是不能親自為老母親料理后事；二是沒安排好兒子的婚事。他的兒子當時只有十歲左右。這種想法，無疑會為大部分中國人所接受。

中國人休妻一般有七種理由，第一種就是不生男孩。對男孩的渴求，導致了納妾制度。也隨之產生了各種不幸。他們生男孩時就興高采烈、趾高氣揚；生了女孩，就神情沮喪、意氣消沉。大部分的溺嬰事件也與此有關，這種事南方比北方多。有時，人們甚至根本就不知道。想獲得這方面的信息極為困難，因為人們對此諱莫如深。中國的私生子也不少，但無論男孩女孩，人們都不希望把他們留在世上。即使不能直接證明各地溺殺女嬰的事件比實際上要少，但從道理上肯定活埋三歲小孩以便養活其祖母的行為，無論如何都不能逃脫殺人的罪責，即使是不受歡迎的女孩。

中國人守孝的觀念，上文已作了闡述，原來要求應滿三年，可實際上已縮短為二十七個月。在《論語》第一十七章，夫子的一個門徒就堅決反對守孝三年，堅持說一年就足夠了。對此，夫子最后說，在三年守孝期間，君子不能行樂，但如果你把它縮短為一年，只要行樂時能心安，就行樂好了?？墒?，夫子明確評價他“不仁”。

守孝比一切社會職責都重要，作兒子的，為政府服役時除外，一生要為此付出很多時間。也有一些特別的孝子，會在父親或母親的墳前搭個棚，整天住在哪兒。最平常的做法是夜晚住在哪兒，白天照常生活。也有一些人情守禮儀，完全沉浸在悲痛中，什么事也不做。筆者也認識這樣一個人，他對父母極盡孝道，在父母墳前守了很長時間，仍然心緒不寧，給全家帶來了一個不必要的負擔。但中國人對此極為贊賞，完全不考慮后果。履行儀式是絕對的，其他任何事情都無關緊要。

好多人為了給父親或母親置辦體面的葬禮，賣掉了最后一塊田，甚至扒屋賣棒。這種行為是一種社會性的錯誤，但又很不容易讓中國人明白。它符合中國人的天性，也符合禮，所以，他們覺得必須去做。

中國人極重視禮儀和孝行，胡克神父依據自己的親自經歷，為我們提供了一個精彩的例子，那時，他來到中國，尚不足一年，住在南方某地。他雇用了一位家在北京的教師，教師家中有一位老母親，母子已四年未通音信。有一次，神父要派一個信差到北京去，考慮到這是一次難得的機會，就讓教師也寫封信回家，聽說信差馬上要走，這位教師就從隔壁教室叫了一個學生，對他說：“過來，拿著紙，替我給我母親寫封信，別耽誤時間，信差馬上要走了。”胡克先生十分驚訝，就問那孩子是不是認識老師的母親，結果是他根本就不知道還有這樣一個人，“你沒告訴過他，他知道寫些什么呢？”老師不以為然地說：“他不知道該寫些什么？他學作文已有一年多了，掌握了不少文雅的辭令，你認為，他不清楚兒子該怎樣給母親寫信嗎？”孩子很快把信寫好了，而且還封了口，老師只是簽了名。這封信可以送給帝國的任何一位母親，她們收到信時，也都會同樣滿心歡喜。

由于孝行對孩子的影響不同，就導致了兩種情況。當然，兩種極端的例子在哪兒都能找到。殺死父母的現象并不多見，這種人一般都是瘋子，但對他的處罰與常人沒什么不同。普遍百姓，終日在窮困潦倒中痛苦地呻吟，父母對子女過分苛酷，有時在所難免，所以才會有這種事情發生。另一方面，主動代父接受死刑的事也時有發生，它有力地證明了孝心的真誠與力量。盡管做父親的可能罪該萬死。

西方基督教國家的家庭關系紐帶十分松弛，對剛從這種紐帶中解脫出來的西方人來說，中國的孝行的確有些吸引力。尊敬長者的品質就對盎格魯一撒克遜民族特別有益。在西方，兒子長大后，想去哪兒就去哪兒，愿做什么就做什么。在中國人眼里，這有點像長大了的牛犢或驢駒，因為只有動物才不受禮的約束。站在中國人的立場思考一些問題，就會發現，我們還有許多社會行為需要改進，我們大多數人就像生活在玻璃房子中一樣，確實應該小心謹慎，不能亂扔石子。不過，不重點強調一下孝順的幾個致命缺陷，一切討論都將徒勞無功。

中國人的孝順觀念有五大缺陷，兩個已經討論過了，還有三個未討論。第一是它對作兒女的，列舉了一大堆義務，可是對父母的義務，卻只字不提。在中國，提這類建議是多余的。而在世界其他各地，它一直都是必不可少的。神啟的智慧曾引導使徒保羅，使他以精煉的語言道出了理想家庭的四大支柱：“你們作丈夫的，要愛你們的妻子，不可苦待她們?！薄澳銈冏髌拮拥?，當順從你們的丈夫，這在主里面是相宜的?！薄澳銈冏髋畠旱?，要凡事聽從父母，因為這是主所喜悅的。”“你們作父親的，不要惹兒女的氣，恐怕他們失了志氣?！笨鬃拥赖滤枷胫械哪切┦浪椎闹腔墼趺茨芘c這些意義深遠的準則相比呢？所有的教義都不為女兒說話，全都為了兒子。在這方面，多少世紀以來，如果中國人不是色盲的話，怎么會沒發現這是對人性的嚴重摧殘呢？生為男身，就被家里奉為至寶，生為女身，則成了家中可怕的累贅，就算不一定被溺死，也一定會終生飽受歧視。

中國人認為，妻子是卑賤的。孔子沒有說過丈夫應該對妻子如何，或妻子應該怎樣對待丈夫。儒教只是要求男人應該依從父母，同時也強迫妻子這樣做。妻子與父母產生矛盾時，因為妻子次要、卑賤，她就應該讓步、屈服。中國家長制的社會結構存在著嚴重的弊病。它壓抑人的某些天性，但又將另一些天性訓化至極端；它使整個社會成了老年人的社會，青年一代則倍受壓抑，處在從屬地位。鋼鐵般的壓力禁錮了人的思想，阻礙了社會的發展利有益的變革。

孝道中傳種接代的宗旨是一系列弊病的根源。它要求，無論有沒有養活孩子的條件，都必須生養。它導致了早婚與人口泛濫，使人們倍受貧困的煎熬。它也是一夫多妻制和納妾制的根源，它永遠是一個禍根。祖先崇拜真正是中華民族宗教信仰的集中體現。如果正確地理解的話，它是一個民族被迫套上的最沉重的苦軛。正如那茨博士在上面的那篇論文中指出的：令人惱火的是，數億中國人都受無數死人的支配，“活著的一代受過去無數代人的控制?！睂τ诹钊酥舷⒌谋Ｊ刂髁x來說，祖先崇拜是最好的形式與保證。如果保守主義不受到道德上的打擊，在本世紀的最后十五年，中國如何能夠使自己完全適應新的形勢呢？如果中國人繼續把過去的死人當做真正的神靈，他們如何能夠向前邁出切實的一步呢？

我們認為，中國人的孝順完全是由恐懼和自私造成的，這二者是左右人靈魂的最有力的因素。鬼魂因為具有制造災難的力量，故而受到崇拜。孔子有一句富有智慧的格言：“敬鬼神而遠之，可謂知矣?！焙雎粤斯┢?，鬼魂就會發怒，接著就要報復。崇拜它們就是一種較保險的方式，這似乎就是各種崇拜死人觀念的核心?；钊酥g，推理也同樣簡單。兒子孝順老子，也要求自己的兒子盡孝，這就是養孩子的目的?！胺N樹遮蔭，養兒防老?！睙o論是老子，還是兒子，都很清楚這一點?！皼]有尿床的孩子，就沒人墳前燒紙?！泵恳淮家獌斶€上一代的養育債，也要求下一代最大限度地償還自己。因此，孝順的品行就年復一年、代復一代地傳了下來。

對于中國人過分夸張的孝順，有一種憂郁的觀點認為，中國人既沒有把崇拜對象具體化為上帝，也沒有能夠認識到上帝的存在。祖先崇拜是孝順最完美的，最終的表現形式，它純粹是由泛神論、不可知論和無神論構成的。它把死人變成神，神也不過是死人而已。他們只對父母表示愛、感恩和畏懼，他們不知道天上的父，就是知道了，也毫無興趣。中國人要么接受基督教，要么放棄祖先崇拜，二者不能共存。在這二者生死斗爭中，適者生存。

英文原版：

XX.BENEVOLENCE

HE Chinese have placed the term" "at the head of their list of the Five Constant Virtues.The char- acter which denotes it,is composed of the symbols for"man" and“two,”by which is supposed to be shadowed forth the view that is something which ought to be devel- oped by the contact of any two human beings with each other. It is unnecessary to remark that the theory which the form of the character seems to favour,is not at all substantiated by the facts of life among the Chinese,as those facts are to be read by the intelligent and attentive observer.Nevertheless, it is far from being true,as a superficial examination would seem to indicate,that there is among the Chinese no benevo- lence,though this has been often predicated by those who ought to have known the truth."The feeling of pity,"as Mencius reminds us,"is common to all men,"widely as they differ in its expression.The mild and in some respects really benevolent teachings of the Buddhist religion have not been without a visible effect upon the Chinese people.There is, moreover,among the Chinese a strong practical instinct in every direction,and when the attention has once been directed towards the"practice of virtue,"there is a great variety of forms in which there is certain to be abundant scope for the exercise of benevolence.

Among the kinds of which have commended themselves to the Chinese may be named the establishment of foundling hospitals,refuges for lepers and for the aged,and free schools.As China is a land which for most practical pur- poses is quite free from a census,it is impossible to ascertain to what extent these forms of benevolent action are to be found.Rev.David Hill,who has investigated the charities of central China,reports thirty benevolent institutions in the city of Hankow,expending annually some eight thousand pounds sterling.But it is hazarding little to say that such establish- ments must be relatively rare;that is to say,as regards the enormous population,and the enormous aggregation of that population in huge hives,where the needs are greatest.

The vast soup-kitchens which are set up anywhere and every- where when some great flood or famine calls for them are fam- iliar phenomena,as well as the donation of winter clothing to those who are destitute.It is not the government only which engages in these enterprises,but the people also co-operate in a highly creditable manner,and instances are not uncommon in which large sums have been thus judiciously expended. The ordinary streams of refugees which swarm over the coun- try in a bad year are also allowed to camp down in cart-sheds, empty rooms,etc.,but this is to a considerable extent a neces- sity.When such refugees come in extensive bands,and meet in all quarters with repulses,they are certain to be provoked into some form of reprisal.Common prudence dictates some concessions to those in such circumstances.

We do not reckon among the benevolences of the Chinese such associations as the provincial clubs for the care of those who may be destitute at a distance from home,and who with- out this help could not return,or who,having died,could not otherwise be taken home and buried.This is an ordinary business transaction of the nature of insurance,and is probably so regarded by the Chinese themselves.

In some of the books which have for their express object exhortations to"virtue,"an account is opened,in which the individual charges himself with every bad act which he can remember,and credits himself with every good act.The balance between the two exhibits his standing at any particu- lar time in the account books of the Chinese Rhadamanthus. This system of retributive bookkeeping exhibits clearly the practical character of the Chinese,already remarked,as well as their constant and irrepressible tendency to consider the next life,if there be one,as only an extension and an amplifi- cation of the present state of existence.The apparent motive for a large percentage of Chinese is therefore the reflex benefit which such acts are expected to insure to the man who indulges his benevolent impulses.The open avowal of a selfish motive in all acts of merit sometimes leads to curious results.In the month of April,188g,the prefect of Hangchow attempted to raise funds for the sufferers from the Yellow River floods,by levying a tax on each cup of tea sold in the tea-houses of that great city.To the people of that ancient capital this assessment presented itself in a light simi- lar to that in which the Bostonians of I773 regarded the tea tax of their day.The prefect endeavoured to win the people over by a proclamation,in which they were informed that "happiness was sure to be their reward,if they cheerfully con- tributed to so excellent a cause."The people,however,boy- cotted the tea-shops,and were in the end entirely victorious. It is not every day that we are treated to the spectacle of a cityful of people banded together to resist compulsory"hap- piness"!

Among the acts by which merit is to be accumulated may be named the providing of coffins for those too poor to buy them;the gathering of human bones which have become ex- posed,and their reburial in a suitable manner;the collection of written or printed paper that it may be burned to save it from desecration;and the purchase of live birds and fish, that they may be restored to their native element.In some places plasters of a mysterious nature are also given to all applicants,free vaccination is(theoretically)furnished,and “virtue books”are provided for sale at a price below cost, or are even given away.While such works of merit occupy a very prominent place in Chinese benevolence,so far as our observation goes,acts of kindly good-will to men and women occupy a very subordinate place.When such acts occur they are almost sure to be on some stereotyped pattern,involving a minimum of trouble and thought on the part of the doer. It is much easier to stand on the brink of a river,watch a fisherman lower his net,pay for his entire catch,and throw it back again into the water,than to look into the cases of the needy at one's doors,and give help in a judicious manner.

Moreover,to the mind of the practical Chinese there is a very important difference.As soon as the fish touches the water or the bird skims the air they are on a wholly self-sup- porting basis,and that is the end of the work.They will not expect the man who has released them to provide them and their numerous families with means of subsistence. For the man it only remains to register his virtuous act and go about his business,sure of no disagreeable consequences. But in China"virtue's door is hard to open,"and it is still harder to shut.No one can possibly foresee all the remote conse- quences of some well-meant act of kindness,and knowing the danger of incurring responsibility,the prudent will be wary what they undertake.A missionary living in an interior province was asked by some native gentlemen to do a kind act for a poor beggar who was totally blind,and restore to him his sight.It proved to be a case of cataract,and excel- lent vision was secured.When the result became certain,the missionary was waited upon by the same gentlemen,and told that as he had destroyed the only means by which the blind man could get a living,that is,by begging,it was the duty of the missionary to make it up to him by taking him into em- ploy as a gatekeeper! Sometimes a benevolent old lady who is limited in the sphere of her activity makes a practice of entertaining other old ladies who seem to be deserving,but who are victims of cruel fate. We have heard of one case of this sort—and of one only—and they may not be so rare as is supposed.But after all abatements,it must be admitted that“real kindness kindly expressed”is not often to be met in Chinese life.

When a vast calamity occurs,like the great famine,or the outburst of the Yellow River,the government,local or gen- eral,often comes to the front with a greater or less degree of promptness,and attempts to help the victims. But instead of doing this on any uniform and extensive scale,such as the perpetual recurrence of the necessity might seem to suggest, it is done in a makeshift way,as if the occasion had never before arisen and might never arise again. The care of the refugees is moreover usually abandoned at the very time when they most need help,namely,in the early spring,when,having been weakened by their long suffering and by atrocious over- crowding,they are most liable to disease.It is then that they are sent away with a little ready.money,to make the best of their way home,and to get back into their normal state of life as best they can.The excuses for this are apparent:the funds are usually exhausted;there is work to be done on the farms,if the workers can but get food till wheat harvest. The government knows that they will die of pestilence if they remain till warm weather where they are,and destruction in detail seems to the officials to be a less,because a less con- spicuous,evil than death in masses.

The same spirit is evinced in the curious ebullition of chari- tableness,which is known as the“twelve eight gruel.”This performance may be regarded as a typical case of the most superficial form of Chinese benevolence. On the eighth day of the twelfth moon it is the custom for every one who has accumulated a quantity of benevolent impulses,which have had no opportunity for their gratification,to make the most liberal donations to all comers,of the very cheapest and poorest quality of soup,during about twelve hours of solar time.This is called"practising virtue,"and is considered to be a means of laying up merit.If the year happens to be one in which the harvest is bountiful,those who live in the country have perhaps no applicants for their coarse provender, as even the poorest people have as good or better at home. This circumstance does not,however,lead to the pretermis- sion of the offer,much less to the substitution of anything of a better quality.On the contrary,the donors advertise their intentions with the same alacrity as in other years,not to say with greater,and when the day passes,and no one has asked for a single bowl of the rich gruel designed for them,it is merely put into the broken jars out of which the pigs are fed, and the wealthy man of practical retires to rest with the proud satisfaction that however it may be with the poor wretches who would not come to his feast,he at least has done his duty for another year,and can in good conscience pose as a man of and virtue. But if,on the other hand,the year should be a bad one,and grain rises to a fabulous price,then this same man of means and of virtue fails to send out any notices of the“practice of virtue”for this particular year,for the reason that he“cannot afford it”! We have already referred to the gifts to beggars,of whom one almost everywhere sees a swarm.This donation also is of the nature of an insurance.In the cities the beggars are, as is well known,organised into guilds of a very powerful sort,more powerful by far than any with which they can have to contend,for the reason that the beggars have nothing to lose and nothing to fear,in which respects they stand alone. The shopkeeper who should refuse a donation to a stalwart beggar,after the latter has waited for a reasonable length of time,and has besought with what the Geneva arbitrators styled“due diligence,”would be liable to an invasion of a horde of famished wretches,who would render the existence even of a stolid Chinese a burden,and who would utterly pre- vent the transaction of any business until their continually rising demands should be met.Both the shopkeepers and the beggars understand this perfectly well,and it is for this reason that benevolences of this nature flow in a steady,be it a tiny rill.

The same principle,with obvious modifications,applies to the small donations to the incessant stream of refugees to be seen so often in so many places.In all these cases it will be observed that the object in view is by no means the benefit of the person upon whom the“benevolence”terminates,but the extraction from the benefit conferred of a return benefit for the giver.Every such object of Chinese charity is regarded as a "little Jo,"and the main aim of those who have anything to do with him is to make it reasonably certain that he will “move on.”

To the other disabilities of Chinese must be added this capital one,that it is almost impossible for any en- terprise,however good or however urgent,to escape the with- ering effects of the Chinese system of squeezes,which is as well organised as any other part of the scheme of Chinese government.It is not easy to possess one's self of full details of the working of any regular Chinese charity,but enough has been observed during such a special crisis as the great famine, to make it certain that the deepest distress of the people is no barrier whatever to the most shameful peculation on the part of officials entrusted with the disbursement of funds for relief. And if such scandals take place under these circumstances, when public attention is most fixed on the distress and its re- lief,it is not difficult to conjecture what happens when there is no outside knowledge either of the funds contributed or of their use.

When the Chinese come to know more of that Occidental civilisation of which too often only the worst side obtrudes itself upon them,it will certainly seem to them not a little re- markable that all Christendom is dotted with institutions such as have no parallel out of Christendom,and then it will per- haps occur to them to inquire into the rationale of so significant a fact.They may be led to notice the suggestive circumstance that the Chinese character for benevolence,unlike most of those which relate to the emotions,which generally have the heart radical,is written without the heart. The virtue for which it stands is also too often practised without heart,with the general results which we have noticed.That state of mind in which practical philanthropy becomes an instinct,de- manding opportunity to exhibit its workings whenever the need of it is clearly perceived,may be said to be almost wholly wanting among the Chinese.It is not,indeed,a human de- velopment.If it is to be created among the Chinese,it must be by the same process which has made it an integral con- stituent of life in the lands of the West.